Biogeography brown lomolino pdf download

Biogeography Item Preview. EMBED for wordpress. Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! Colored map of the Antarctica on endpapers Includes bibliographical references pages and index The science of biogeography -- The history of biogeography -- The physical setting -- Distributions of single species -- The distribution of communities -- The changing earth -- Claciation and biogeographic dynamics of the pleistocene -- Speciation and extinction -- Dispersal -- Endemis, provincialism, and disjunction -- The history of lineages -- Reconstructing biogeographic histories -- Island biogeography: patterns in species richness -- Island biogeography; patterns in the assembly and evolution of insular communities -- Species diversity in continental and marine habitats -- Continental patterns and processes --The status of biodiversity -- applied biogeography: single species -- Biogeography for the Twenty-first Century.

Biogeography, fourth edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Book Chapters Moreira-Munoz and others Dec 19, — Edition.. Biogeography, first published in , is one of the most comprehensive text and Fifth Edition. Mark V. Riddle, and Robert J. Download Ebook Biogeography Lomolino 4th Edition. B In marked contrast, the southwestern side lies in a rain shadow, has a hot, dry climate, and has cacti and other plants typical of desert regions.

A courtesy of E. Orians; B courtesy of A. Instead, certain plant species colonize the area and are in tum replaced by later colonists, beginning with weedy pioneer species and continuing until the mature or climax vegetation is reestablished. This process is called secondary succession.

Throughout this process, both the microclimate and the soil of the site also change, becoming more favorable for some species and less favorable for others. The process by which new soil is formed from mineral substrates is usually long and complicated.

Physical processes, such as freezing and thawing, and water and wind erosion, break down the parent rock material. Totally organic soils histosols , such as peat, form in certain unusual environments. The rate of soil formation varies widely, depending largely on the nature of the parent material and the climatic setting.

The formation of shallow soils may take thousands of years in Arctic and desert regions, where temperature and moisture regimes are extreme eg, McAuliffe For example, soils only a few centimeters deep cover much of eastern Canada, where the retreat of the last Pleistocene ice sheets left bare rock only about 10, years ago.

Organisms rapidly recolonized Krakatau from the large neighboring islands of Java and Sumatra, and by , only 50 years after the eruption, 35 cm of soil had been formed, and a lush tropical rain forest containing, almost plant species was rapidly devel- oping van Leeuwen Formation of Major Soil Types Anything we write about soils must be a gross oversimplification, because both the classification and the distributions of soils are very complex, even controversial.

Visit the vast flat plains of the United States or the Ukraine and you will find just one or a few soil types distributed for as far as the eye can see, but in other geographic regions, especially mountainous areas, soil maps are mosaics that look like complicated abstract paintings Figure 3. These so-called pedogenic regimes are those that typically occur in habitats characterized by temperate deciduous and coniferous forests podzolization , tropical forests laterization , arid grasslands and shrublands calcification , and waterlogged tundra gleization Podzolization occurs at temperate and subarctic latitudes and at high ele- vations where temperatures are cool and precipitation is abundant.

In such cli mates plant growth may be substantial, but the low temperatures inhibit microbial activity, so organic matter, called humus, accumulates. This process leaves behind a silica-rich upper soil containing ote Helerogencous mosaic of oi oxidized iron and aluminu:n compounds, but few cations. In the humid tropics, which experience high temperatures and heavy rain- fall, microbes and other organisms rapidly break down dead organic material, so little humus can accumulate.

In the absence of organic acids, oxides of iron and aluminum precipitate to form red clay or a bricklike layer laterite. The heavy rainfall causes silica and many cations, such as potassium, sodium, and calcium, to be leached out of the soil Figure 3. In some areas, if the tropical forest cover is removed, the organic material and its bound nutrients are easily lost, and the intense equatorial sun bakes the exposed lateritic soils hard, retarding, sec- ondary succession and making the area unsuitable for agriculture.

Caicareous soils typically occur in arid and semiarid environments, partic- ularly in regions where thick layers of calcium carbonate were deposited beneath ancient shallow tropical seas.

Little or na organi debi sesqlonides Accumulation oflsterite Bish gray clay Ge! In desert soils, the scanty rainfall pen- etrates only a short distance below the surface, where it leaves behind a rock- like layer of calcium carbonate, called caliche.

In regions where precipitation is higher, water and roots penetrate deeper into the soil profile, leading to the formation of deep, fertile soils rich in organic material and essential nutrients, such as potassium, nitrogen, and calcium. Such soils are typical of tallgrass and shortgrass prairie habitats, although little of the former remains because these soils are so highly prized for agriculture.

In cold, wet polar regions, gleization is the typical process of soil formation. At the permanently wet or frozen surface, where the low temperatures and waterlogged conditions prevent decomposition, acidic organic matter builds up, sometimes forming a layer of peat that can be several meters thick Figure 3. Below this organic upper layer, an inorganic layer of grayish clay, con- taining iron in a partially reduced form, typically accumulates.

While few nutrients are lost through leaching, the highly acidic conditions cause nutri- ents to be bound up in chemical compounds that cannot be used by plants. Thus gley soils typically support a sparse vegetation of acid-tolerant species.

Etom Whitaker The processes of soil formation and soil types described above occur where the chemical composition of the parent material is typical of the common rock types: sandstone, shale, granite, gneiss, and slate. A simplified summary of the relationship between climate and zonal soil type is given in Figure 3. The global distribution of zonal soil types Figure 3. Unusual Soil Types Requiring Special Plant Adaptations Tn addition to stich zonal soils, there are unusual soil types derived from par- ent material of unusual chemical composition.

Certain rock types, such as gypsum, serpentine, and limestone, contain unusually high amounts of some compounds and little of others. Serpentine, for example, is particularly defi- cient in calcium, and gypsum contains an excess of sulfate.

Few plant species can tolerate such azonal soils, and the low-diversity plant communities that do grow on such soils have special physiological adaptations for dealing with their unusual chemical composition. Halomorphic soil typically occurs near the ocean in estu- aries and salt marshes, and in arid inland basins where shallow water accu- The Physical Setting 51 Figure 3.

Note the close correla- tion of these soil types with the cli- matic zones shown in Figure 36, re- flecting the influence of temperature and precipitation on soil formation. Pitcher plants, sundews, Venus's flytraps, and other insectivorous plants can grow in highly acidic soils or other environments where nutrients are severely limiting. These plants obtain their nitrogen and phosphorus by capturing living insects, digesting them, and assimilating the nutrients.

A less spectacular adaptation to acidic and other nutrient-poor soils is evergreen veg- tation Beadle Because nutrierits are lost when leaves are dropped, and more minerals must then be taken up by the roots to produce new leaves, plants can use limited nutrients more efficiently by retaining their leaves for longer periods. In mesic temperate climates, where the predominant vegetation is usually deciduous forest, itis common to find evergreens growing on acidic and nutrient-poor soils.

Examples are the pine barrens of the eastern United States and the Eucalyptus forests of Australia Daubenmire ; Beadle In addition to their chemical composition, the physical structure of soils can influence the distribution of plant species and the nature of vegetation. In arid regions, for example, the size and porosity of soil particles affect the availabil ity of the limited moisture to plants by affecting the runoff, infiltration, pene- tration, and binding of water.

Thus, even within a small region of uniform cli- mate, differences in soil texture can cause large differences in vegetation.

A striking example is provided by the bajadas, or alluvial fans, of desert regions igure 3. These interesting geological formations are made up of sedi- ments cartied out of mountains by infrequent but heavy flooding of the canyons. As the floodwater gradually loses energy, it deposits sediments in a gradient, dropping large, heavy rocks at the mouth of the canyon and small, sand- and clay-sized particles at the bottom of the fan. The resulting bajada shows a corresponding gradient in water availability and vegetation Bowers and Lowe Cacti predominate on the coarse, rocky, well-drained soils high on the bajada, where water is available only for short periods during and after rains.

These succulents can take up water rapidly through their extensive shallow roots and store it in their expandable tissues. Shrubs and grasses are much more common farther down the bajada, where their roots can extract the water held on and among the smaller soil particles Figure 3. At the upper end of the alluvial fan, where large boul- ders have been deposited, the vegetation is dominated by cacti and other succulents that can take up water rapidly, before it ppercolates below the root zone.

At the lower end, where water infiltration is poor and the existing water is tightly bound by fine clay particles, the vegetation consists of sparse, shallowly rooted Shrubs.

In contrast, the lowlands have accumulated fine, water-retaining, soils, ancl this, as well as their proximity to the water table, allows them to support a much more mesic vegetation.

Thus a person interested in the factors influencing plant distributions and community composition at this local to regional scale must pay particular attention to how subtle characteristics of soil structure affect the runoff, infiltration, and retention of rainwater. Many kinds of mam- mals, reptiles, and invertebrates are restricted to particular types of soils that meet their specialized requirements for burrowing and locomotion.

For exam- ple, in North American deserts, lizards of the genus Uma, the kangaroo rat Digodomys deserti, and the Kangaroo mouse Microdipodops pallidus are all restricted to dunes and similar patches of deep, sandy soil.

Another set of spe- cies, including chuckwallas Sauromalus obesus , collared lizards Crotophytus collars , and rock pocket mice Chaetodipus intermedius , show just the opposite habitat requirement, being restricted to rocky hillsides and boulder fields.

Salinity, light, inorganic nutrients, pH, and pressure also play key roles in the distrib- tions of aquatic organisms. Like terrestrial climates, the physical characteris- fics of water often exhibit predictable patterns along geographic gradients, which can be understood with a basic background in physics.

First, it means that photosynthesis can occur only in surface waters where the light intensity is sufficiently high the photic zone. Virtually all of the primary production that supports the rich life of oceans and lakes comes, from plants living in the upper 10 to 30 m of water. Along shores and in very shallow bodies of water, some species, such as kelp, are rooted in the sub- strate. These plants may attain considerable size and structural complexity, and may support diverse communities of organisms.

In the open waters that cover much of the globe, however, the primary producers are tiny, often uni- cellular algae, called phytoplankton, which are suspended in the water col- umn.

Any heat that reaches deeper water must be transferred by convection or by currents. Consequently, deep waters are characteristically cold, even in the tropics. This unusual property of water is significant for the survival of many temperate and polar organisms because it means that ice floats. Ice provides an insulating layer on the surface that prevents many bodies of water from freezing solid. In tropical areas and in temperate climates during the summer, the surfaces of oceans and lakes are usually covered by a thin layer of warm water.

Mixing of the surface water by wave action determines the depth of the thermocline and maintains rela- tively constant temperatures in the water above it. In small temperate ponds and lakes that do not experience high winds and heavy waves, the thermo- cline is often so abrupt and shallow that swimmers can feel it by letting their feet dangle a short distance.

In large lakes and oceans, where there is more mixing of surface waters, the thermocline is usually deeper and less abrupt. Oxygen cannot be replenished at great depths where there are no photosyn- thetic organisms to produce it, and the stable thermal stratification prevents mixing and reoxygenation by surface water, Only a relatively few organisms can exist in these extreme conditions.

The feces and dead bodies of organisms living in the surface waters sink to the depths, taking their mineral nutrients with them. The lack of vertical circulation thus limits the supply of nutrients to o : November September 4 6 8 g v Bw -emocie fn 14 Figure 3.

Vertical temperature profiles of Lake Mendota, 16 Wisconsin, at different dates from summer through fall, show- 1 ing the loss of thermal stratification as the lake cools. In July, the thermocline is pronounced and shallow. After Birge and Juday Consequently, deep tropical lakes are often relatively unproductive and depend on continued input from streams for the nutrients required to support life.

Overturn in temperate lakes. The situation is somewhat different in tem- erate and polar waters. Deep lakes, in particular, undergo dramatic seasonal changes: they develop warm surface temperatures and a pronounced thermo- cline in summer, but freeze over in winter. This semiannual mixing carries oxygen downward and returns inorganic nutrients to the surface.

Phosphorus and other mineral nutrients may be depleted during the summer, when warm temperatures allow algae to grow and rep-oduce at high rates; overturn replenishes these nutrients, stimulating the growth of phytoplankton. Temperate lakes, such as, the Great Lakes of North America, are often quite productive and support abundant plant and animal life, including valuable commercial fisheries.

Salts are dis- solved solids carried into the oceans by streams and concentrated by evapora- tion over millions of years. The presence of salts in water increases its density, causing swimmers to experience greater buoyancy in the ocean than in fresh water.

Varying salinity and density have important effects on ocean circulation. Rivers and precipitation continually supply fresh water to the surface of the ocean, and this lighter water tends to remain at the surface.

If you have ever flown over the mouth of a large, muddy river, such as the Mississippi, you may have noticed that its water remains relatively intact, flowing over the denser ocean water for many kilometers out to sea. In polar regions, the input of fresh water to the ocean from rivers and precipitation generally exceeds losses from evaporation, but the reverse is true in the tropics. This pattern creates a some- what confusing situation, because warm tropical surface water tends to become concentrated by evaporation and to increase in density, counteracting to some extent stratification owing to temperature.

On the other hand, cold polar water, which would be expected to show little stratification, may become somewhat stabilized as low-density fresh water accumulates on the surface.

Vertical circulation occurs in oceans, but the rates of water movement are s0 slow that a water mass may take hundreds or even thousands of years to travel from the surface to the bottom and back again. Areas of descending water tend to occur at the convergence of warm and cold currents in polar regions, where the colder, denser water sinks under the warmer, lighter water.

Areas of rising water, called upwelling, are found where ocean currents pass along the steep margins of continents. Some organisms with limited capacity for locomotion may drift in currents for long distances with- out leaving a single uniform water mass. These rings are small masses of cold or warm water that have broken away from the southern or northem edges of the Gulf Stream to drift through water of contrasting temperature in the North Atlantic.

A Temperature depth profile recorded by an oceanographic vessel that traveled through sev- eral rings, as indicated by the line on the map B. C-E Changes in water surface temperatures as rapped by infrared satellite imagery showing the formation, mavement, and disappearance of rings. These variations have major effects on the distributions of organisms because special physiolog- ical adaptations are necessary to tolerate the extremes.

As every scuba diver knows, water pressure increases rapidly with depth. It becomes a major prob- Jem for organisms in the ocean, where the deepest areas are up to 6 kilometers below the surface. Pressure increases at a rate of about one atmosphere about 1.

Organisms adapted to living in surface waters cannot withstand the pressures of the deep sea, and vice versa. Variation in salinity is relatively discontinuous. Habitats of intermediate or fluctuating salinity, such as salt marshes and estuaries, constitute only a tiny fraction of the earth's aquatic habitats. Only a few widely tolerant euryhaline organisms have the special physiological mechanisms required to survive in the widely fluctuating salinities of estuaries and salt marshes.

Tides and the Intertidal Zone We can lear a great deal about the factors determining the distributions of organisms by studying environmental gradients: both gradual changes, such as variation in light and pressure with depth in lakes and oceans, and rapid changes, such as the variation in temperature in the cooling outflow of a hot spring, One of the steepest, best-studied, and most interesting environmental gradients occurs where the ocean meets the land.

Along the shore is a narrow region that is alternately covered and uncovered by seawater. It is called the intertidal zone because it experiences a regular pattern of inundation and exposure caused by tides. Sir Isaac Newton explained how the gravitational influences of the moon and sun interact to cause the global fluctuations in sea level that we call tides, The entire story is complicated, but the main pattern and its mechanism are simple.

The tides are flows of surface waters. They occur in response to a net tidal force, which reflects a balance between the centrifugal force of the spin- ning earth and the gravitational forces of the moon and sun Figure 3.

Because the gravitational force exerted by an object is equal to its mass divided by the square of its distance, the smaller but nearer moon has a greater effect than the sun.

In betweea these extremes, the gravitational and cen- trfigal forces are balanced, and there is esentally no net idl force. The movement of surface waters in e- sponse to these tdal forces Figure 3. There are also two periods of Tow-amplitude neap and high-ampl tude spring tides each month the lat- ter correspond to the times of the new and full moons, when the gravitational forces of moon and sun are aligned Courtesy of D.

During the quarter moons, the sun and moon are at right angles to each other from the perspective of earth , and their gravitational effects tend to cancel each other, resulting in low-amplitude or neap tides. AA distinct community of plant and animal species lives in the intertidal zone. Nearly all aspects of the lives of these organisms are dictated by the cyclical patter of inundation by seawater at high tide and exposure to desic- cating conditions at low tide.

Most species are confined to a very narrow zone of tidal exposure, so that their distributions form thin lines running horizon- tally along the shore. In this, chapter we have been concerned primarily with global patterns of variation in abiotic environments that influence the distributions of organisms. Upon closer inspection, however, these patterns tell us surprisingly little about the actual conditions experienced by an organism living in a particular region.

But even there, changes can be very abrupt, and conditions can go from favorable to intolerable in distances of just a few centimeters or meters. Examples include the rapid changes in tempera- ture at thermoclines and around hydrothermal vents see Chapter 6 , and in salinity in estuaries where rivers enter the ocean.

On the other hand, by selecting appropriate microenvironments, individuals, can be distributed over a wide range of latitudes and elevations and still expe- rience virtually identical physical conditions. Examples of both situations abound. Lizards are conspicuous elements of most desert faunas because they are active during the day and are able to tolerate the hot, dry conditions.

The same deserts, however, may also be inhabited by frogs and toads, which spend most of their lives buried in the cool, relatively moist soil, emerge to feed only on rainy or humid nights, and possess adaptations for breeding in ephemeral ponds that form after occasional heavy rains. The same species may occur in tropical rain forests and arctic tun- dias, but still live in virtually identical, homoeostatically regulated environ- ments within the bodies of their hosts.

The capacity of organisms to exploit specific microenvironments depends largely on their mobility or vagility regardless of whether they are actively or passively transported , body size, special physiological properties, and behavioral selectivity.

We can readily imagine how mobile animals can seek out and settle in a particular habitat, but we should keep in mind that plants also may have adaptations that result in effective microhabitat selection. For example, many species have seeds that are attractive to certain kinds of animals, which disperse them to favorable microsites.

Many seeds also require specific cues for germination that indicate the presence of favorable environ- mental conditions. Colonizing Suitable Microenvironments In order to live in isolated localities and microclimates, organisms must be able to get to them. Many plants, invertebrate animals, and microbes accom- plish this during special dispersal stages oftheir life cycles eg. After Brown environments while in transit.

Often, however, their arrival at a suitable microsite is largely a matter of chance. In contrast, many animals are able to use their sophisticated sensory and locomotor systems to seek out isolated microenvironments. To demonstrate both active and passive dispersal, itis only necessary to create a small artificial pond and observe the rapidity with which it is colonized both by zooplankton copepods and other small crus- taceans , which disperse passively as resistant eggs, and by large insects div- ing beetles and dragonflies , which fly long distances to actively seek out suit- able sites for colonization, Some distinctive microenvironments are s0 isolated that the specialized organisms that inhabit them cannot disperse among them.

How, then, were they originally colonized? Some organisms colonized them in the past when bridges of suitable habitat existed between them, or the intervening areas were at least not so extensive and inhospitable. Examples include the fishes of iso- lated lakes, which require freshwater connections in order to disperse.

Still other microenvironments are so inaccessible that their biotas include many unique species that have evolved in situ, diverging from ancestral forms that occurred in neighboring habitats.

Examples include many of the highly differ- entiated, blind, unpigmented cave animals that have evolved in each cave sys tem from surface-living ancestors. Similarly, many of the unique plants that inhabit isolated pockets of serpentine soils have been derived from species that occurred on the surrounding zonal soils. While many organisms select microclimates that are appropriate for their lifestyles, some are able to create their own microenvironments.

Many kinds of small mammals dig burrows or build other structures that provide favor- able microsites in otherwise inhospitable environments. These dens provide relatively stable and moderate temperatures and high humidities, even when conditions just outside are lethal J, Brown Figure 3. On the one hand, it means that some species may have much broader geographic ranges than we would have predicted from a cursory comparison of their physical tolerances and climatic patterns. In the next chapter, we consider in more detail how different kinds of environmental conditions limit the local distributions and geographic ranges of individual species.

Methodological Issues: Mapping and Measuring the Range If the geographic range is a basic unit of biogeographic investigation, how do we define and measure it? At first glance, this seems straightforward. Before we start using range maps to illustrate biogeo- graphic patterns and processes, however, we should critically consider just What they tell us.

There are three basic kinds of range maps: outline, dot, and contour. Out- line maps usually depict the range as an irregular area, often shaded or cal- ored, within a hand-drawn boundary Figure 4.

The boundary line presum- ably defines the limits of the known distribution of the species, but its accuracy can vary widely depending on how well the distribution is actually known and how precisely the author has incorporated this information into the map. Often, the author will use his or her knowledge of the organism to make educated guesses about the probable distributional limits when ade- quate data are not available.

Dot maps plot points on. Dot maps are often prepared as part of a taxonomic study of a species, and the dots show localities where verified museum specimens have been col- lected. Such maps convey both more and less information than outline maps. From Burgess. Copyright zona Board of Regents. So a disadvantage of dot maps is that they do not extrapolate beyond the relatively few sampled locations to make inferences about the potential distribution of the species. Sometimes, however, the author draws a free-form line around the peripheral location records, creating a com- bination dot and outline map e.

Each dot represents a locality where the species has been recorded. A line has been drawn by hand to in- clude the outermost dots, thereby en- closing the known geographic range.

From Borodin etal. A Each contour line, or is0- cline, indicates a 20th-percentile class of relative abundance. B A three-di- mensional landscape depicting relative abundance. The av data from these census counts numberof birds seen per hour per field party have been entered into a computer program, which averaged and smoothed them to estimate abundance between the ac- tual census localities in order to draw the maps.

From Root a. An aerial photograph near the edge ofthe local distribution of the juniper tree uniperousos- teosperma in eastern Nevada. The Science of False Memory C. Survival in a new ecosystem Advances in the Study of Dispersal Chapter 7. Physical limiting edution Disturbance, dispersal, and time Interactions with other organisms Synthesis Chapter 5. He is co-author of Island Biogeography: It furthers the Biogeograohy objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide.

Dispersal and Immigration Box 6. No eBook available Amazon. Denying to the Grave Sara E. RiddleJames H. His research interests span island biogeography, diversity theory, macroecology, and conservation biogeography. Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation, published by Oxford University Press, and has research interests spanning island biogeography, diversity theory, and conservation biogeography.

Read, highlight, and take notes, across biogeograpyy, tablet, and phone. Challenges and Successes in Addressing the Linnaean Shortfall Conservation biogeography and the Wallacean shortfall The geography of recent extinctions and endangerment Geographic range collapse The dynamic geography of extinction forces Chapter Gorman and Jack M.